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8.结论
威廉姆森喜欢模仿法国诗人查尔斯•佩吉(Charles Péguy)的说法,他说,要增进对复杂商业和经济组织的基本理解,其方法是以“适度、缓慢、精细、确定的方式”开展法律、经济学和组织方面的微观分析研究项目。也就是说,如果我们想更好地理解大型科技公司和反垄断,就必须关注这样的研究。没有简单的答案,那些假装简单的人是在妄想。*1.如前所述,所谓的新布兰代斯主义者对“大型科技”现象充满信心,而没有考虑威廉姆森给复杂的组织问题带来的影响(Williamson,2010)。让我们开始艰苦地工作吧,从有史以来最优秀的组织经济学家之一那里汲取灵感,获得启发。将资产专用性和能力这两大核心因素串联在一起,使我们有望更深入地了解这个时代重要的竞争政策问题。
附录(虚构的)谷歌收购YouTube的对话
2006年,谷歌以16.5亿美元收购了YouTube。当时,有人说这是一个疯狂的价格。如今,许多人认为(对谷歌而言)这是有史以来最成功的交易之一。 那时候YouTube已经广为人知,而谷歌视频(Google Video)虽已成立,但仍在艰难前行之中。YouTube已获得普遍认可;它有更多的社交功能和非常受欢迎的盗版电视剪辑。对谷歌来说,有两个威廉姆森式的问题:(1)谷歌是否应该构建内部的视频能力而不是收购YouTube?谷歌视频已经迈出了一步,虽然并没有引起人们的注意,部分原因是谷歌不想承担其服务器上的盗版内容带来的法律风险。(2)收购YouTube是否有意义?
为了阐明一些问题,我们可以倒退回2006年谷歌仍在考虑是否购买的时候。现在想象一下谷歌与其经济顾问威廉姆森和蒂斯之间的讨论。*2.在2017年回答一位记者的提问时,我说:“如果你保持完全开放竞争的机会,市场力量将会管好主导企业……如果你是一家大公司,很难保持领先地位。小公司更有创业精神,更灵活。超市威胁街角商店,沃尔玛威胁超市,现在亚马逊正在威胁沃尔玛。”
威廉姆森:谷歌希望通过此次收购获得什么优势?到底发生了什么?谷歌的成本显而易见:除了高昂的收购价格,还会因该网站上存在大量未经授权的版权内容,承担相当大的法律风险。YouTube是否需要谷歌作为其广告合作伙伴将其内容货币化?难道你不应该选择与YouTube签订广告合同吗?这不是既可以获得所有好处,同时又可以消除成本吗?有什么具体的合同因素让你担心吗?为了帮助你回答这些问题,让我提出一个关键问题:你是否认为YouTube将成为消费者网络视频分享的主要提供商,也就是说,你是否正在经历我称之为“数量太少的局面”(small numbers situation)?
谷歌:是的。我们的经验表明,在一个具有强大网络效应的市场中,一旦产生了占主导地位的供应商,那么随着市场的扩大,其主导地位很可能继续;除非供应商自己搞砸。
威廉姆森:今天有什么原因导致谷歌无法与YouTube订立标准的广告合同?
谷歌:不,我们没有理由不能与YouTube建立一个标准的广告合作关系。他们是内容供应商,就像《纽约时报》一样。我们可以在它们的视频旁边放广告。
威廉姆森:那么就没有理由收购它们了。你可以签订一份好的合同,你和YouTube就可能各得其所。你不是还在考虑收购《纽约时报》吧?这没有什么不同,是吗?
蒂斯:我已经阅读了您关于一体化的富有见地的著作。但是,它有点静态,不是吗?我认为,当我们处于高速运转的市场时,可能需要做动态分析。您告诉我,行动往往体现在细节中。首先,让我们看看随着YouTube的市场和技术的发展,不可避免地会出现的合同难题。以搜索为例,谷歌利用搜索巩固其广告业务:视频内容的搜索和分类是复杂的,而且发展迅速。YouTube带来了一个独特的挑战:它的内容不是来自标准的供应商,后者用分类所需的元数据标记内容,谷歌和YouTube这两家公司管理搜索和分类的界面将非常复杂。此外,这个界面将会变得不稳定,例如,我们可以预见软件可以直接查看视频内容本身并对它们分类,而无须人工干预。随着技术的不断发展,合同界面(contractual interface)也需要随之发展,随着时间的推移,它将变得无法通过合同进行管理。正如您过去说的,任何合同都是十分“不完备的”。
谷歌:但是,威廉姆森教授说的有道理。我们没有能力管理一个庞大的、不断增长的视频内容网站。正如威廉姆森教授所言,这不是我们的工作。
蒂斯:我同意。但无论如何,你都需要开发这些功能。也许我们可以同意,在我倡导的交易成本和能力相结合的分析框架下,有三个纵向一体化的驱动力。首先,我们面临威廉姆森式的“数量太少的局面”,你需要对搜索用户生成的内容并在这些内容上投放的广告进行专用性投资,这将使处于主导地位的供应商(Google认为YouTube会继续存在)面临风险。第二,你与YouTube之间的任何合同都必然是不稳定且不完备的。第三,也是最后一点,YouTube是你的搜索资产的战略补充。为了说明这一点,可以想象一下,从现在起五年后,YouTube决定阻止谷歌搜索其内容,而仅将该权利授予谷歌的主要竞争对手。这会降低谷歌在其网站上出售广告的能力。
谷歌:谢谢,伙计们。我很喜欢你们通过拓展彼此思维的方式帮助解决我们的问题。但是,我那些聪明的技术人员将告诉我,你们俩都只是借了我的手表告诉我时间。无论如何,谢谢你们!
(上海交大安泰经济与管理学院谢一鸣、管玉琳、王恬恬译)
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