财新传媒

经济史和全球化的当代挑战

来源于 《比较》 2019年第4期 出版日期 2019年08月01日
文|凯文·奥罗克

  大萧条

  奥罗克和威廉姆森(1999,第286页)认为,一战和二战间隔期的去全球化不仅仅是外部冲击,即第一次世界大战的结果,它的根源要追溯至19世纪末的反全球化浪潮。我们没有详细讨论这种观点的准确度有多高,不过它还是值得我们思考的。比如,我认为,就美国移民政策而言,我们的观点有着相当稳固的立足点。19世纪末逐渐收紧的限制、1917年《美国移民法》的引入和20世纪20年代的移民人数限额之间有着明显的延续性。1914年之前引入的欧洲农业保护政策在战火中毫发无损并延续至今。19世纪末还出现了一个转变,那就是开始保护制造业,尤其是重工业免受英国竞争的影响。这种现象无处不在,因此罗伯特.艾伦(Robert Allen,2011)称之为发展的“标准模式”的一部分。全球多个国家在20世纪重新获得关税自主权的时候采取了这一举措。

  但从另一方面来说,如果认为一战的爆发和大萧条的开始并不是对世界经济开放产生严重负面影响的重大突变,那就大错特错了。我们可以在多大程度上认为这两者是全球化破坏自身的例证,而不是强加于一个强劲而开放的国际体系的外部冲击?

  我先说说大萧条吧。我们从彼得.特明(Peter Temin,1989)和巴里.埃肯格林(1992)的著作中了解到,金本位和大萧条有着千丝万缕的关联。金本位是19世纪末支撑全球资本市场的制度性基础设施中的一部分。20世纪20年代回归金本位是重建战前高度全球化世界的一项重要举措,政客认为,这一做法标志着各国对大体开放的国际体系的承诺。从这个角度来说,我们可以认为随后的大萧条在某种程度上是由20世纪20年代的全球化造成的。这样的论据可能稍显勉强。还有一个更加令人信服的理由来论证大萧条至少在部分程度上是由之前的全球化引起的,那就是国际资本流动在这场危机蔓延至全球各地时的推动作用。这一点对于德国等国的学者来说估计是不言自明的,它也是查尔斯.金德尔伯格(Charles Kindleberger,1973)著作的核心要旨,但我认为,从埃肯格林和特明的著作开始,盎格鲁撒克逊经济史学家更倾向于用蒙代尔弗莱明(MundellFleming)模型研究大萧条,汇率、利率以及货币和财政政策是这种分析的核心所在。这种倾向恰好符合凯恩斯对两次世界大战间隔期的宏观经济决策的一再谴责。然而,自2008年以来,特别是自2010年欧元区危机以来,再一次从资本流动突然停滞的角度分析欧洲大萧条的做法变得更加自然,这是阿科米诺蒂和埃肯格林(Accominotti and Eichengreen,2016)近来进行举例论证时采取的一种分析视角。从这一视角可以更明确地看出,欧洲大萧条是全球化某一特定维度,即资本流动造成的负面后果:在贷款终止的时候,德国等国家发现自己不得不削减支出,同时它们的金融体系也因外国储户纷纷从银行提款而备受压力(Eichengreen,2015,第137—144页)。德国总理布吕宁因其采取的具有经济和政治破坏性的紧缩政策而广受批评,他原本是否可以采取不那么具有破坏性的政策?就这个问题展开讨论的德国历史文献可能会让欧元区外围国家的观察人士产生比以往更强烈的共鸣。

  如果大萧条是由国际资本市场失灵引起的,或者由当时被视为市场支柱的金本位造成的,那么我们还能举出一个全球化自我破坏的实例,因为大萧条是两次世界大战间隔期保护主义盛行的主要原因所在(虽然《斯穆特霍利关税法案》有更早的根源)。埃肯格林和欧文(2010)认为,20世纪30年代的保护主义与坚持金本位有关,国际联盟(1943,第31页)等文件之前已经提出了这一点。坚持金本位的时间越长,意味着国际收支问题和萧条越持久,而且会使政策制定者无法推行替代方案来解决这些问题。

  更糟糕的是,大萧条促进了政治极端主义,其中以德国为最但并不限于德国。古雷格里.加洛弗雷.威拉等人(Gregori GalofréVilà et al.,2017)发现,紧缩政策与1930年至1933年间德国支持纳粹的投票结果是正相关的,不过有计量经济学证据显示经济危机与更宽泛意义上的右翼极端主义有着相关性。艾伦.德布罗姆海德等人(Alan de Bromhead et al.,2013)发现,有证据表明经济长期表现不佳与两次世界大战期间右翼政治极端民族分子得到的更高选票是相关联的,而曼纽尔.冯克等人(Manuel Funke et al.,2016)发现,根据一份1870年至2014年间20个发达经济体的样本,极右翼政党获得的选票份额在金融危机之后平均提高了30%。极端主义推动了更加激进的去全球化,因为纳粹推出了一种严格管制的战时经济,其特点是寻求战略自给自足和双边贸易安排(Adam Tooze,2006)。

  什么样的措施原本可以阻止这些灾难?答案显而易见,那就是高瞻远瞩的宏观经济决策:各国本可以早点选择放弃金本位,最好是统一行动,并利用由此产生的政策灵活性重振本国经济。从这一点来说,全球各国在2008年之后的政策应对要远比当时更胜一筹。2010年之后,欧元区外围国家发现自己无法贬值,必须实行顺周期紧缩政策并受困于一个追求过度保守政策的货币联盟(直到马里奥.德拉吉接管欧洲中央银行)。这些国家的经历表明,大萧条的基本宏观经济教训时至今日仍然具有现实意义(O.Rourke and Taylor,2013)。这样的经历肯定有助于解释意大利为何会在2017年选出一个民粹主义政府。

  第一次世界大战

  最后,第一次世界大战又是怎么回事呢?图兹和费蒂克(Tooze and Fertik,2014)指出,我们不应当认为是它终结了19世纪末的全球化,因为它本身就是一场全球化的冲突,涉及各大洲之间的高额国际借贷和大规模军事资源转移。这一点说得很有道理。此外,现有的价格证据表明,国际商品市场在一战期间分崩离析(Findlay and O.Rourke,2007,第434页),而且这次冲突产生了一系列长期后果,如新成立的东欧民族国家、影响全球工业和农业部门的结构性失衡以及俄国革命,所有这些因素都导致想要重建基本上成形于1914年之前的国际经济秩序变得困难重重(同上,第435—443页)。两次世界大战间隔期的一些贸易和移民限制根源于19世纪末,不过一战对国际经济产生了单独的去一体化影响。

  我们应该在多大程度上将一战视为世界经济在1914年受到的外部冲击?还是说它至少在某种程度上代表了一种更激烈的反全球化浪潮?图兹和费蒂克(2014)总结了全球化与战争之间最直接的联系:资本流动和技术转移帮助俄国逐渐赶上老牌大国。这破坏了先前存在的地缘政治均势,德国因此开始制定军事战略来应对这一威胁。两位作者原本还可以再补充一点,那就是:在此之前,工业革命扩展至德国之后已经破坏了欧洲的地缘政治均势,那一次的破坏甚至有可能更加彻底。同样,现代经济增长扩展至日本之后也在20世纪上半叶破坏了亚洲的稳定。如果拿当今世界与之相比的话,结果既一目了然又令人担忧:如果我说中国的经济增长与全球化密切相关,或者说这将对国际均势产生影响,应该没有什么人会提出异议吧。

  大卫.罗威(David Rowe,2005)提出了一种更为微妙的将一战前的全球化与一战爆发相关联的机制。全球化在劳动力资源丰沛的欧洲提高了工资,从而提高了招募士兵的财政成本或征募他们的政治成本。这使各国在军事上感觉更不安全、更无法有效地以军事报复行动进行威慑。同时,这也使他们对军事盟友的可靠性感到担忧。在罗威看来,所有这些因素都有助于解释战争即将爆发之前的一系列灾难性政治决策。

  奥弗尔(1989)提出了另一种将19世纪末的全球化与地缘政治不稳定相关联的机制。国际贸易使工业化国家能够从比较优势中获益,在它的放大作用下,结构转型先是导致英国,后又导致德国越来越依赖食品和原材料的进口供应。这种依赖使各国在军事上感到脆弱无助,并使海军优势——就德国而言,是尽可能在海军力量上做到与他国旗鼓相当——成为一个至关重要的国家战略利益问题。1914年之前数十年的英德海军竞赛是一种合乎逻辑的结果。奥弗尔介绍了海军战略家从最初的纯防御考量转为后来开始探索进攻性海战可能性的过程(另请参见Nicholas Lambert,2012)。这些考量当然不是一战爆发的原因,但它们至少在一定程度上推动了英国的参战决定。如果德国击败法国,它就可以将欧洲大陆的军事力量直接投送至大西洋而无须担心受到英国的封锁威胁。正如爱德华.格雷爵士(Sir Edward Grey)在1911年所说的那样,如果一个欧洲大国赢得大陆霸权,那么英国将永远失去对海洋的控制权,这也意味着它与自治领的解体和大英帝国的终结(Michael Howard,1972,第51—52页)。

  图兹(2006)和迈克尔.巴恩哈特(Michael Barnhart,1987)已经论证过,在两次世界大战间隔期,想要实现战略自给自足的心理在德国和日本既是战争的推手,也是战争的结果。邦法蒂和奥罗克(Bonfatti and O.Rourke,2018)则从更广泛的角度告诉我们,如果追随国对进口原材料的战略依赖与老牌大国的海军霸权两相结合,就能推动这个追随国发动先发制人的战争,以期赢得战略自给自足。高工资全球化经济体的战争成本提高也会促使政客把赌注压在快速攻势上,以期一举成功(Jari Eloranta and Mark Harrison,2010,第137页)。

  还是那句话,如果说当代有哪个国家可以与之相提并论,那就是中国。就像19世纪的英国和德国一样,中国正在经历快速的工业化和结构调整,而且它现在对国际贸易的依赖程度要远胜于以前。在进口方面,它严重依赖外国石油,这些石油大部分都是通过马六甲海峡运来的;在出口方面,它将近乎垄断的稀土资源用于战略目的。在和平接纳新人进入顶级强国方面,国际政府体系历来表现不佳;在这方面有一些精彩的理论和历史文献,但是因为太过庞大而无法在这里予以总结(如Robert Gilpin,1981;Robert Powell,2006)。一旦中国开始怀疑自己是否真的可以依靠市场提供所需的食品和原材料,这个世界就有可能变得远比之前危险。

  两次世界大战间隔期的贸易有一个特点让当代观察家觉得格外危险,那就是日益减弱的多边性,即各国越来越多地与其殖民领地或势力范围进行贸易往来。正如福克.希吉德(Folke Hilgerdt,1935)所说:“双边主义使某些国家难以获得原材料供应,因而有可能导致各国争相对不发达国家施加影响(或使之成为自治领),进而引发政治纷争,而这有可能对各国之间所有形式的和平合作产生负面影响。”德布罗姆海德等人(2018)指出,1930年以后大英帝国在英国本土进口中所占份额的上升有70%以上可以归因于英国歧视性贸易政策。因此,《关贸总协定》第1条明令禁止歧视性贸易政策也就不足为奇了,不过它还是有很多众所周知的例外条款。两次世界大战间隔期的情况表明,侵略性和歧视性贸易政策的最大成本可能是政治成本而非经济成本。正是从这一点来说,坚持国际法治相当重要,同时英国脱欧和特朗普当选意味的含义也变得令人担忧。尤其需要指出的是,美国阻挠世界贸易组织上诉机构重新任命法官的做法有可能使该机构陷入瘫痪。

  结语

  全球到目前为止尚未出现大范围的去全球化,但这在未来不无可能,而且会产生危险的地缘政治后果。那么,决策者应该做些什么呢?

  幸运的是,大萧条的教训影响了2008年之后的宏观经济政策,不过它们并非历史上唯一适用于此的教训。2016年的政治动荡发生在美国和英国,这两国的危机后宏观经济管理要远远胜过欧元区,其经济复苏也相应提前。这表明,与贸易和移民相关的长期力量对选票的影响可能要大于2008年之后的宏观经济和金融危机。2016年的动荡发生在休伯曼所说的劳动合同(此处是它的21世纪版本)受破坏最为严重的国家,这是巧合吗?从我对历史的解读看,政府只要过度推动任何事情,包括一般意义上的市场和具体意义上的全球化,就必然产生反作用。也许拥护开放政策的人士不应该在这个已经高度全球化的世界推动更紧密的一体化,而是应该宣告胜利,并专心研究如何保护个人和地区免受国内和国际市场必将带来的风险。

  与所有历史学家一样,经济历史学家还可以为当今世界围绕着2016年政治动荡、民粹主义日益广泛的起因及其对国际秩序的潜在影响(其中一些影响非常令人担忧)等问题而展开的争论做出最后一项贡献。作为经济学家,我们接受的训练是寻找模式并力求对全部现象类型做出一般性解释,而不是对个别历史事件做出具体解释。但是,作为历史学家,我们接受的训练也使我们能够认识到个体事件的独特性,并承认背景、突发情况和个体行为人的选择在其中发挥的作用。这种创造性张力是我们这门学科的核心所在,也是它让这门学科如此迷人。历史学家的视角在当下非常重要,因为它告诉我们,我们和我们的领导人都享有自由意志,我们可以用这种意志让事情变得更好或者变得更坏。没有什么是不可避免的。在危险时期,将这一点牢记在心将大有裨益。

  (陆殷莉译)

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