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住房、城市增长和不平等:放松规制和升级改造在减少经济和空间不平等中的有限作用

来源于 《比较》 2021年第2期 出版日期 2021年04月01日
文|安德烈斯·罗德里格斯-波塞 迈克尔·斯托珀尔

升级改造的影响:未增加可负担能力的贵族化

  谢长泰和莫雷蒂(2015)认为,繁荣城市中的邻避主义和严格的住房管制将工人的收入重新分配给食利者,并加剧了收入不平等(可能使土地所有者在区域内收入分配中处于靠前位置),进而抑制了总体增长。相比区域间迁移和融合的主张,上述主张更为合理,但仍然需要条分缕析。

  首先,区域人均收入与城市群收入的基尼系数之间有很强的关联。总体而言,美国旧金山这样的繁华都市区比犹他州普罗沃(Provo)这类不那么繁华的都市区更不平等。除其他因素外,福利和收入再分配制度在不平等中也起着重要作用。如穆斯泰德(Musterd et al.,2017,第1070页)指出的:“欧洲大都市区的贫富差距仍然低于美国最大的大都市区。”

  繁荣城市中的一些区域内不平等确实可能是由于收入从非住房所有者净转移到住房所有者,因为住房价格的增长比工资和其他产品价格的增长更快。但是,这些断言背后的模型假设通常过于简单,并且加总的数据无法阐明这种关系。1990年到2015年,旧金山湾区收入超过15万美元的家庭增长了80%,占总家庭的比例从17%增长到27%(ABAG,2017,第9页)。这些人口推高了住房价格,并使中部地区本来很贫穷的少数社区变得贵族化。收入不平等加剧严重影响了低技能、低收入工人的住房,因为繁荣的城市地区的现有存量住房已经升级改造,从而为中低收入家庭带来了可负担能力危机。

  最近对IPUMS(综合公共用途微观数据系列)数据的分析显示出收入不平等而非总供给的强大影响。波波夫(Popov,2019)发现,美国收入最高的100个大都市区中,国民收入分配底部人群的住房成本比收入分配顶部人群的住房成本增长更多。收入最高的50个大都市区中,有45个收入不平等有所加剧,而在收入最高的100个城市中,仅19个城市收入不平等有所缩小。实际上,所有城市区域中,国民收入分配顶部四分之一人群的住房成本均已下降,但国民收入分配底部人群的收入不平等大大加剧了。对位于收入分配下半部分的人来说,这不是一个新问题,他们目前用于支付住房的收入份额与1980年相同。区别在于最高收入人群的住房成本下降了。谢长泰和莫雷蒂(2017)提出,这一现象部分归因于土地所有者获得的红利,因为高收入者中拥有土地的比例更高。但是,对收入分配顶部的租房家庭来说,其住房费用占收入的份额下降了,而对收入分配底部的租房家庭来说,其住房费用占收入的份额却有所增加,这一结果与福瑞马克(Freemark,2019)对芝加哥的详细分析一致。

  基于这些数据,我们认为诸如全面升级改造等政策主要释放了服务于高收入者的市场力量,因此扩大而非缩小了收入不平等。孔勃等人(Combes et al.,2018)发现,大都市区中心与外围之间的土地价格弹性是非凸的,并且随着城市规模的增加而增加。(土地)供给变化必须大而集中,才能使该曲线明显弯曲,从而对其他地区产生涓滴效应。因此,区域范围的升级改造主要触发了高技能工人想要居住的社区的新住房建设:包括已经贵族化的地区以及它们与其他社区之间广泛的边界地带。因此,收入分配顶部四分之一的高技能工人得以住在大都市的核心区。此外,为高收入家庭建设住房也有积极的作用,那就是筛选出高收入家庭,防止他们与低收入家庭直接竞争年代久远的低质量住房。但是,升级改造通常会涉及在受到市场高度青睐的地区替换较早和较低质量的存量住房,实际上减少了理想地区面向中低收入家庭的住房供给。这就是贵族化。

  几乎没有证据表明,住房成本大幅降低会以涓滴的方式惠及三分之二的低收入家庭,或者对这些家庭所在的街区进行升级改造。有证据表明,它们加剧了高收入内城区边界附近街区的流离失所。根据《华盛顿邮报》的报道(Stein,2018),这再次意味着旧金山、亚特兰大、纳什维尔、芝加哥、费城、丹佛、匹兹堡和华盛顿的最高收入人群的租金下降、赤贫人群的租金上升。理想的内城区的豪华建筑热潮并未缓解住房市场中对廉价房产的竞争。尽管有不少关于“筛选”的证据,但似乎也没什么说服力。

  面对日益加剧的个体间不平等,现在让我们扩展大城市内的住房动态选择。繁华大都市地区的收入不平等严重影响了低技能工人,迫使他们痛苦地将居住地点选在郊区来“套利”。与高收入工人相比,这通常会带来较长的通勤时间和高昂的交通费用,严重影响他们的生活质量;他们别无选择,否则为了生活在更中心但设施较少的居民区,就会带来主观地位的降级。

  对于低技能外国移民,另一种套利活动正在兴起。在较繁华的大都市地区,代际社会流动性更高(Chetty et al.,2014),从而吸引了低技能移民。但是,尽管外国移民愿意接受较差的生活条件(低质量社区中较高的房价),但低技能国内移民不太愿意离开原住地,因为他们的相对社会地位已经比他们在更繁荣的大都市地区所能达到的更高。

  无论如何,繁荣地区所有类型的低收入家庭都在与高薪工人的竞争中付出了“流离失所”的代价,高薪工人居住在更高质量的较新住房中,他们受益于街区贵族化式的升级改造。现有的模型或模拟既无法说明有关繁荣地区升级改造将产生多少新住房的现实估计,也无法说明此类新供给的现实地理分布、大都市内高技能者的分类对新住房存量的重要性、大城市间高技能移民的增加或它们对住房竞争的影响(另见Freemark,2019)。

  因此,如果没有积极的政策帮助低收入家庭及其街区,低技能者就无法从主流文献设定的全面升级改造政策中受益。正如雅各布斯(Jacobus,2019)指出的,如果升级改造的主要结果往往是建造“高端住房,那么虽然每个人都会看到一些好处,但大部分好处将流向富人”。这是显而易见的,因为更多不受管制的城市(休斯敦、菲尼克斯、奥兰多)和受到严格管制且被认为奉行邻避主义的城市(波士顿、纽约、旧金山、伦敦、巴黎以及大多数欧洲大城市)的住房市场,都存在以收入划分的较高程度的居住隔离,以及通勤时间的增加,尤以低收入居民为甚。

  当然,以收入、种族、国籍以及其他因素划分的各种社会隔离具有多种结构性原因(Boustan,2017;Sampson,2012,2018)。即使在实行“混合居住”政策的城市(如巴黎)中,对租房者的保护可以减缓贵族化和社会隔离的进程(但有其他副作用),市场力量也朝相反的方向发挥作用。管制和其他政策通常得到居民的支持,他们利用政治权力来确保同样的街区质量、抵制各种不便利的设施,这会带来预期或非预期的隔离效果。但是,推翻这些管制与住房市场的全面自由化没有关系。例如,人们在芝加哥发现升级改造带来了意想不到的后果,提高了住房价格但并不一定激发新的住房建设(Freemark,2019)。与大多数高度管制的城市相比,管制松散的亚特兰大或休斯敦隔离程度更高。的确,虽然有证据表明低收入群体进入高质量社区会对儿童发展产生积极影响(Chetty et al.,2015),而且减少社会隔离所需的政策组合往往也打着“提供更好的就业机会;改善交通,减少通勤时间;以及为低收入人群提供更好的学校和设施”这样的旗号,但这些政策基本上没有得到深入研究。总体而言,“住房即机遇”学派未能适当地考虑城市内部住房市场的高度分割,各种大的空间和结构因素对城市内子市场特征的影响(Jacobus,2019; Watkins,2001)。就本文的目的而言,升级改造并不是解决城市中个体间不平等所需的那种微妙而复杂的政策组合。最重要的是,面对繁荣的大都市地区住房危机的潜在结构性问题:如高技能、高收入人群的高需求,收入不平等加剧,大都市区的增长和成熟,以及对高质量城市环境的需求带来的建设和土地成本上升,无差别的总供给政策收效甚微。减少空间经济隔离所需的针对性政策可能涉及加强对住房市场的管制以及其他形式的公共干预,这与放松管制的做法恰恰相反。积极实施公共/社会住房计划的城市(如纽约、巴黎和伦敦)向我们表明,需要对建设可负担的住房给予较高的公共补贴。

理论的使用和误用

  “住房即机遇”学派直言并深信其研究在政治和政策上都是可行的,但是,正如我们论证的那样,在我们看来,这个学派的研究在科学上不够扎实,不足以支持他们的这种自信。原因如下: 它没有考虑劳动力需求对城市人口水平和构成变化的影响。越来越多的证据表明,这是当今各地区人口分类的主要驱动力;

  · 无法证明住房供给变化是影响区域间迁移模式和规模、另类城市规模分布(alternative city size distributions)以及总体经济产出的主要因素,尤其是与劳动力需求和技能的地理位置相比;

  · 它无法有效地证明,与有效需求的变化、建筑成本的结构性原因、土地集中、第一地理特征(①first nature geography,意指位置、空间上的邻近、地形地势等天然地理特征,对应于和经济结构、人口集聚和经济潜力等相关的second nature geography。——译者注)以及其他许多潜在原因相比,分区才是住房供给变化率或大都市之间新住房选址背后的主要原因;

  · 它没有证明,与就业和收入的地理位置以及收入不平等的总体变化相比,住房管制与住房价格变化的大小或性质之间有明确的联系;

  · 它没有考虑到放宽总体分区对大都市内部的影响,错误地认为,对高收入大都市地区住房建设的全面放松管制,将通过高端住房市场对低收入人群产生涓滴效应(缓解住房竞争),在社会和空间上产生广泛的价格和收入效应。 在上述不足中,有不少源于基本的空间均衡模型,该模型在当今的城市经济学中几乎没有受到任何质疑。城市经济学需要一种内涵更丰富且更切合实际的方法,将劳动力需求的地理条件和排名偏好完全纳入其中(如Schwartzman,2017)。家庭在考虑迁移时,不仅考虑住房的平均成本,而且首先考虑的是根据他们的技能水平可获得的工作类型。在当今的情景下,技能水平较低的国内工人避开昂贵的大城市,不仅仅是因为那里的平均房价高。就像大多数外来移民一样,他们可以在这些大城市巨大的市场中获得某种住房。但国内技能水平较低的移民面临不断下降的城市工资溢价,再加上收入前景的不确定性,以及通勤时间较长和主观地位降低的不确定性(如必须与他们看来社会地位比自己低的移民群体共处一地),使他们做出不搬到繁荣城市的决定。在繁华的大都市地区,没有现实的住房供给扩张可以解决低技能国内工人的就业和住宅公用设施需求,使他们能够大规模迁移到繁荣地区。

  尽管没有充分论证的科学依据,“住房即机遇”学派的观点已经在政治上颇有影响。反对更加宽松的规划制度,反对促进伦敦绿带开发或在环旧金山湾区丘陵的公园土地上搞建设的理论,不仅来自富裕、食利的土地所有者,也来自在日常生活中欣赏绿色空间的普通民众,以及敬业的环保主义者。然而,现在这些团体被描述为反对社会正义的邻避主义者,并得到了著名学术机构的支持。在落后地区和民粹主义媒体(以及越来越多的主流媒体)中,繁荣地区的居民被描绘成竖起壁垒挡住那些不幸者的人(如The Economist,2019;Edsall,2018;Guilluy,2014)。他们几乎没有考虑这样一个事实:作为迎臂运动主要政治支持者的高技能工人,其动机可能是出于个人利益,而不是社会正义。对那些主要兴趣不在减少社会空间不平等或促进繁荣的开发商来说,部分主流学术文献也可能有意或无意地成了他们的“烟幕弹”。有关可负担住房的严肃政策必然涉及公共补贴、管制及融资,这些议题在强调放松管制的主流文献中令人惊奇地缺席了。

  令人担忧的是,由于大量的无谓损失型补贴“瞄准了外部人不愿意进入的非常绝望的地区”(Kline and Moretti,2014,第657页),旨在促进落后区域(那里有越来越多的人在空间上“被困”)位置敏感型发展(placesensitive development)政策依然得不到重视。

  我们认为,“住房即机遇”学派向决策者许诺了太多放松房地产市场管制将带来的潜在好处。同时,因为急于推广过分简化的“提升公交站点附近的居住密度”这类愿景,几乎没有考虑那些能够促进在合适的地点为合适的人群提升住房负担能力的政策。此外,繁荣地区的放松管制计划和住房建设虽然是值得关注的问题,却不能解决落后地区的问题。以认真和可持续的发展战略为代价,过度关注这些问题会在衰退地区和落后地区加剧经济、社会、政治困境和愤怒,这可能危及欠发达和较发达地区的经济活动的基础,近几十年来已经受到关注(RodríguezPose,2018)。至关重要的是,必须继续考虑管制和其他形式的公共干预,使之在与当今困扰繁华大都市区严重的社会空间不平等做斗争中发挥重要作用。而且,回到我们在引言中讨论的,至关重要的是研究一系列导致当前不发达地区经济停滞的复杂问题,尤其要研究那些发生在就业空间分布、集聚性力量以及当今所需的技能类型中的结构性变化。

  (国务院发展研究中心王瑞民 译)

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